English Heritage
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCES (EH)
Used for recording the techniques, recovery methods and materials associated with archaeological sciences.
ASPECT
INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES
MATERIAL TYPE
ANTLER
Outgrowths of bone borne by most members of the deer family (Cervidae). They are shed and re-grow each year.
BEACH DEPOSIT
A deposit formed by wave and tidal action on an estuarine or marine beach.
BIOGENIC CARBONATE
Any carbonate material produced by biological activity, for instance operculae of snails.
BONE
Any of the pieces of hard tissue consisting largely of calcium phosphate that make up the skeleton of a vertebrate animal.
BRICK
Material used for construction, commonly fired in its manufacture.
BURNT FLINT
A form of silica, similar to quartz. Commonly black or white in colour and used for tool manufacture. Flints heated in antiquity may be dated using thermoluminescence.
COPROLITE
Waste material from the digestive tract of animals. The term coprolite comes from the Greek 'kopros' meaning dung and 'lithos' meaning stone, and is used for faecal matter that has been preserved by mineral replacement or dessication.
EGG SHELL
Use for the remains of an egg whether from a bird, reptile or amphibian.
ESTUARINE DEPOSIT
An alluvial deposit laid down in an estuary.
FEATHER
Use for feathers, an epidermal growth found in birds consisting of a quill, shaft and two vanes of barbs.
FIBRE
Use for any thread-like material.
FLOT
The material which floats during the floatation of samples as a means of recovering charred plant remains from an archaeological context.
HAIR
Use for hair, fur etc: filaments growing out of the outermost layer of mammalian skin.
PEAT DEPOSIT
A naturally occurring deposit formed by the decomposition and partial carbonisation of vegetable matter in waterlogged conditions.
PHYTOLITH
Microfossils
Microscopic mineral body (usually silica) found in many plants.
POLLEN
Use for pollen and diaspores. Pollen consists of pollen grains which are the male gametes of flowering plants. Diaspores are the dispersive units of mosses, ferns, fern allies and some plants. To describe the actual object use PLANT REMAINS.
POTTERY
Object produced commonly by firing clay, but can include coarser material to temper it.
RESIDUE
Heavy Residue
The material that does not float during the floatation of samples as a means of recovering charred plant remains from an archaeological context. Also, the material remaining following wet or dry sieving of course sieved samples.
SHELL
Use for any shell of an animal, principally, molluscs, crabs etc.
TUFACEOUS DEPOSIT
A naturally occuring deposit of calcareous tufa ('shell marl') sometimes found in alluvial deposits.
METHOD OF RECOVERY
BLOCK LIFTING
The removal of fragile or complex remains from an investigation as a block of earth for excavation under laboratory conditions. Typical examples are grave goods and cremation burials.
COARSE SIEVING
Bulk Sampling
The method of retrieving animal remains, artefacts and other remains by dry or wet-sieving whole earth samples, typically over 100 litres, sieved through a 2mm or larger mesh.
FLOTATION
Method used for the recovering of material by floating large whole earth samples, usually between 40-60 litres per context (or 100% if context contains less than this).
HAND RETRIEVAL
The retrieval of material from deposits by hand, normally large objects visible with the naked eye, eg. Mammal remains and marine molluscs.
SPECIALIST SAMPLING
The recovery of material from samples collected during field investigations, usually taken by specialists with a particular area of expertise. Normally processed in the laboratory. Also use for the processing of samples subsequent to investigation.
MODIFICATION STATE
ALTERED BY ANIMALS
Modified or damaged by an animal.
ANOXIC
Waterlogged
Material preserved by the exclusion of oxygen usually due to saturation with water which inhibits decay by micro-organisms.
CHEMICALLY ALTERED
Material that has been altered as a result of chemical action.
DESICCATED
Material preserved due to very low humidity which inhibits decay by micro-organisms.
FUNGAL DAMAGE
Material that has been damaged by fungal growth or secretions.
HYDROLYSIS
The chemical breakdown of a material by water.
IMPRESSION
The negative trace left by an object type or material (eg. animal, plant or textile) on another object type or material, often on ceramics or metal corrosion products.
MINERAL PRESERVED
Preservation of material by toxic effect of corrosion products in the immediate vicinity, or within, the material.
MINERAL REPLACED
Fossilised
Mineralised
Replacement of organic material by minerals, including calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate.
PLANT DAMAGE
Material that has been penetrated or disrupted by the roots or rhizomes of plants.
WATERWORN
Material, especially rock, worn smooth by the passage of water.
BURNT
Burnt Deposit
CALCINED
Cremated
Material burnt at high temperature (above 700 degrees Celsius) leaving only the mineral component.
SILICIFIED
Use for material that has been burnt at high temperature in a good air supply such that only the silica component remains.
Use for material that has been burnt.
CHARCOAL
MICRO-CHARCOAL
Microscopic charcoal fragments that are concentrated and counted as part of standard pollen preparation techniques.
Wood that has been burnt and largely reduced to carbon as a result of burning in a reducing atmosphere below 500 degress C (Celsius).
CHARRED
Carbonised
Material that has been burnt and at least in part reduced to carbon as a result of burning in a reducing atmosphere below 500 degrees Celsius.
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES
ALPHA SPECTROMETRY
A technique that uses the emission of alpha particles of specific energies to identify the presence and concentration of certain radioactive isotopes in a sample
ANCIENT BIOMOLECULAR ANALYSIS
Characterisation of organic molecules extracted from fossil or sub-fossil materials, including lipids, DNA etc.
GAMMA SPECTROMETRY
A technique that uses the emission of gamma rays of specific energies to identify the presence and concentration of certain radioactive isotopes in a sample
PEAT HUMIFICATION
A method of determining peat degradation; quantified as the percentage light transmission value of the extracted humic acids, measured at a specific wavelength.
PH DETERMINATION
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a material.
SPOT TEST
The application of a chemical test to a material, usually as a rapid approximation.
STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS
Comparison of different proportions of natural occurring isotopes of lead (Pb), strontium (Sr), oxygen (O), carbon (C) and nitrogen (N).
Examination of a material using chemical means.
DATING TECHNIQUES
AMINO ACID RACEMISATION
The measurement of chemical alterations in the amino acids in protein molecules from bones, shells and teeth. Date range can be between 1,000 and several million years.
ARCHAEOMAGNETISM
Measures the remanent magnetisation direction of magnetic minerals. Useful for dating fired structures, in-situ since their last firing, and for sediments settling from non turbulent water bodies. In the UK, calibration data extends back to 1000BC.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
A technique in which the date is deduced from the presence of fauna and/or flora considered to be characteristic of a given peirod of time or that gives and indication of a probable date.
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE
The measurement of trapped electrons by exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. A useful technique for dating tooth enamel, shells, coral and calcite form 5,000-1,000,000 years old.
FISSION TRACK ANALYSIS
A technique for the dating of damage tracks in volcanic materials caused by the fissioning of decaying radioactive uranium (U) isotopes. Useful in samples more than 50,000 years old.
FLUORINE, URANIUM AND NITROGEN TESTS
A relative dating technique for assessing bones from the same deposit. Often used to check for contemporaneity of bones selected for radiocarbon dating or to check for hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man.
LEAD ISOTOPE DATING
A technique which uses the measurement of decay in radioactive lead (Pb) isotopes to determine a date. Useful for sediments and lead-based paints between 1 and 400 years old.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
A dating technique for the founding of individual populations based on the assumption of steady rates of mutation in mitochondrial DNA. Sometimes used to produce dates for stratigraphic layers containing fossil specimens of populations.
OBSIDIAN HYDRATION
A technique used to date obsidian (volcanic glass) of all ages and is thus not commonly used in the UK.
OXYGEN ISOTOPE ANALYSIS
The use of oxygen (O) isotope ratios in ice or ocean sediment cores to date global environmental change.
POTASSIUM ARGON DATING
The measurement of the ratio of a radioactive potassium (K) isotope and the argon (Ar) gas produced as a by-product of its decay. Useful for dating volcanic material older than 1,000 years.
RADIOCARBON DATING
C14 Dating
Carbon 14 Dating
Carbon Dating
The measurement of the ratio of the radioactive Carbon 14 (C-14) isotope and non-radioactive carbon isotopes. Useful for dating organic materials such as wood and bone between 500 and 45,000 years old.
TEPHROCHRONOLOGY
The use of ash and tephra deposits characteristic of single known-date volcanic eruptions to date stratigraphic sequences.
URANIUM SERIES DATING
The measurement of the decay of radioactive uranium (U) isotopes. Particularly useful for dating calcite and sometimes bone, tooth and shell up to 70,000 years old.
Techniques applied to a material in order to date it or material associated with it. Use more specific terms.
DENDROCHRONOLOGY
The measuring of annual tree-ring growth shown by most tree species in temperated regions. Regional chronoliges are required to date any particular piece of wood, the longest of which, for Germany, works for the present to approximately 14,000 yrs ago.
HUMAN ASPECTS
MANUFACTURING DEBRIS
Use where the material presents debris or waste from manufacturing.
Aspects of a material which result from the modification or use of the material by humans.
LEATHER
Animal skin that has been tanned or tawed.
METAL
FERROUS METAL
Any metal prinicipally composed of the chemical element Iron (Fe).
Class of elements and alloys that are characteristically lustrous, ductile, fusible and malleable. These are extracted from ore minerals originally existing in nature and processed before becoming a recognisable metal.
MICROSCOPY
POLARISED LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Light microscopy in which vibration directions of the light are constrained into single planes.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
S.E.M.
Sem
A process using an electron microscope in which the surface of the specimen is scanned by a beam of electrons which are reflected to form an image. Very high magnification is possible.
The use of magnifying equipment to examine materials not visible to the naked eye.
MULTI-ELEMENT ANALYSIS
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Xrd
A surface technique that uses the diffraction of X-rays to examine the mineral composition of a sample. Useful for identifying corrosion products, pigments etc. but of little use with organic compounds which consist largely of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETRY
Xrf
A surface technique of spectroscopic analysis which relies on the interaction of primary X-rays with the sample to generate a range of secondary X-rays. These have energies characteristic of the elements present in the sample.
Techniques investigating more than one element at a time.
NATURAL ASPECTS
NON-METRIC TRAITS
Use for congenital (present at birth) abnormalities (absent/extra or morphologically unusual features) present in an individual or population.
PATHOLOGY
Disease
Diseased
Use for bone remodelling, new growth, loss or destruction caused by age, activity, disease or trauma during life.
Aspects associated with the genetic make up and/or factors that affected the organism from which the material is derived during its life
NON-FERROUS METAL
COPPER ALLOY
Use for a combination (alloy) of two or more different metals where copper (Cu) is the principal component.
GOLD
A precious metal characterised by its yellow colour and resistance to tarnishing.
SILVER
A precious metal of lustrous, white colour with great malleability and ductility.
Any metal that does not contain the chemical element Iron (Fe) as a principal component.
PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
CLAST LITHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
The identification and grouping of stone types in stratigraphy.
LOSS ON IGNITION DETERMINATION
The weight loss from low-temperature burning of material. It correlates well with organic matter (material derived from living things) content.
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
The degree to which a material will become magnetised when placed in a magnetic field.
MICROMORPHOLOGY
The microscopic analysis of thin sections of resin impregnated stratigraphy.
MINERALOGY
The study of minerals.
MOISTURE CONTENT
A measure of the proportion of water within a sample.
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS
The analysis of the distribution and proportion of sand, silt and clay in a deposit.
STRATIGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
The careful observation and written description of the physical characteristics of stratigraphy. It will normally include information on texture, colour and the nature of the different components.
X-RADIOGRAPHY
The production of an image on a photographic plate as a result of X-rays (very short wavelength electromagnetic radiation) being passed through an object.
The examination of material by physical means, including detailed observation.
ROUNDWOOD
Material comprising entrie or partial transverse sections of stems. Bark may be present or not. Can include complete sections of tree trunk but generally comprises smaller (<20cm diameter) material.
SKIN
Use for the remains of epidermis or outermost layer. Relates to both animals and plants. If describing the actual object use PLANT REMAINS, ANIMAL REMAINS or HUMAN REMAINS.
SOIL PHOSPHORUS ANALYSIS
AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS ANALYSIS
The analysis of the amount of phosphorus (P) (liable fraction) available to plants.
INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS ANALYSIS
The analysis of inorganic phosphorus (P).
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS ANALYSIS
The analysis of organic plus inorganic phosphorus (P).
The analysis of the amount of phosphorus (P) present in a soil.
TOOTH
IVORY
Use for a tusk or tooth of a mammal large enough to be carved or used to make objects such as those of mammoths, elephants, walruses and whales.
Use for teeth, hard structures found in the jaws of vertebrates used principally for chewing and eating.
TREE-RING ANALYSIS
Tree-Ring Studies
The use of annual incremental growth in temperate trees to investigate environmental, especially local, parameters and the history of individual trees.
TWIG
Small (<2cm diameter) roundwood often complete with buds or leaf scars.
WOOD
Hard, compact, unprocessed, fibrous cellulose substance. The roots, trunks and branches of trees and shrubs consist of this tissue.
WORKED
CARVED
COLOURED
Colored
Material with evidence of the application of a pigment or dye.
DECORATED
Decoration
Use where decoration is present.
TOOL MARKED
Tool Marks
Use where evidence of tool marks is present
Use for any material that shows evidence of modification by humans.
LUMINESCENCE DATING
INFRA-RED STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE
Irsl
Irsl Dating
The light emitted from sedimentary minerals or mineral inclusions in bricks when stimulated in the laboratory by infrared light. Used to date samples up to 250,000 years old; especially appropriate for geological sediments containing feldspars
OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE
Osl
Osl Dating
The light emitted from sedimentary minerals or mineral inclusions in bricks when stimulated in the laboratory by light of a different wavelength. Used to date samples up to 250,000 years old; especially appropriate for geological sediments.
THERMOLUMINESCENCE
Tl Dating
The measurement of the light emitted from sedimentary minerals, mineral inclusions in bricks, burnt flint or unburnt calcite when they are heated. The signal relates to their prior exposure to radioactivity. Used to date samples up to 500,000 years old.
A range of techniques that use the build up of charge stored within a crystalline material to estimate its age
GEOLOGICAL SEDIMENT
FELDSPAR
A group of aluminosilicate minerals with varying compositions. The most common mineral in igneous rocks, and common in other rocks and sediments.
POLYMINERAL
A general term to describe a sediment or sample that contains a variety of different minerals.
QUARTZ
A mineral composed of SiO2. Commonly clear or milky in appearance. A common constituent of rocks and sediments.
ZIRCON
A mineral of the composition Zr[SiO4]. Commonly brown or yellow in colour. May contain high levels of uranium and thorium. Can be used for dating using luminescence or fission track methods.
A material composed of mineral grains derived from the breakdown of rocks by environmental processes.